Combining ISCO and ISS for Enhanced Remediation
This white paper explores the integration of In Situ Chemical Oxidation (ISCO) and In Situ Stabilization/Solidification (ISS) into a single application for soil and groundwater remediation. ISCO uses powerful oxidants to destroy contaminants, while ISS immobilizes them within a stabilized soil matrix. Combining these technologies delivers synergistic benefits, including reduced leachate concentrations, improved unconfined compressive strength (UCS), lower hydraulic conductivity (K), and minimized soil bulking. The paper presents design considerations, performance data, and evidence from Srivastava et al. (2016) demonstrating cost-effective, sustainable remediation outcomes.

Managing Sulfate Residuals in ISCO with KLOZUR® Persulfate
This White Paper examines the generation and implications of sulfate residuals following the use of KLOZUR® activated persulfate for in-situ chemical oxidation (ISCO). It details sulfate formation during contaminant oxidation, its influence on groundwater quality, and regulatory considerations relative to secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCL). The paper also explores sulfate’s dual role: potential challenges for reductive dechlorination and benefits for anaerobic bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons via sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). Design strategies, including lime activation to mitigate sulfate concentrations, and the concept of a “combined remedy” leveraging ISCO and enhanced bioremediation, are discussed.

Effective ISCO Treatment for 1,4‑Dioxane and Co‑Contaminants
This white paper addresses the challenges posed by 1,4-dioxane, an emerging contaminant frequently associated with chlorinated solvent sites. It reviews dioxane’s environmental behavior—high solubility, mobility, and persistence—and summarizes regulatory drivers and health concerns. Conventional treatment methods for dioxane are largely ex situ and often ineffective for groundwater applications. The paper demonstrates how KLOZUR® activated persulfate provides an effective in-situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) solution for dioxane, while simultaneously treating co-contaminants such as TCA, DCA, and chlorinated ethenes. Laboratory and field data confirm the efficacy of multiple activation methods (heat, high pH, peroxide, chelated iron) and highlight case studies achieving up to 99.9% contaminant reduction.

Application of Activated Persulfate for NAPL Remediation
This White Paper explores the remediation of non‑aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) in soil and groundwater using KLOZUR® activated persulfate ISCO technology. It highlights the challenges of DNAPLs and LNAPLs, emphasizing oxidant delivery, solution density, and contaminant solubility as critical factors for successful treatment. The paper also reviews activation methods—including heat, hydrogen peroxide, high pH, and surfactants—that enhance contact and contaminant destruction, offering practical strategies for reliable site clean‑up globally.

Understanding Sulfate Behavior Following Persulfate Application
This White Paper reviews the fate of sulfate residuals generated during in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) with KLOZUR® persulfate. It presents laboratory and field data showing how sulfate concentrations initially rise in groundwater injection zones but typically decline within six months due to dilution, dispersion, and microbial reduction by sulfate‑reducing bacteria (SRBs). The paper also highlights secondary effects such as sulfide formation and mercury precipitation, offering insights into the geochemical processes that govern sulfate attenuation and long‑term groundwater quality.

Managing Residual Persulfate in Groundwater Sampling and Analysis
This White Paper examines the stability of activated persulfate in subsurface environments and its impact on contaminant analysis in groundwater samples. It discusses how persulfate longevity enhances remediation effectiveness by extending oxidant contact time, while also highlighting potential analytical challenges caused by residual persulfate during laboratory transport and testing. The paper reviews mitigation strategies such as sample handling protocols, extraction methods, and stabilizer addition (e.g., ascorbic acid) to minimize contaminant loss, providing practical guidance for accurate monitoring and reliable site assessment globally.

Thermal Activation of Persulfate Using Electrical Resistive Heating
This White Paper details the use of electrical resistive heating (ERH) to activate KLOZUR® persulfate for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO). It explains the principles of thermal activation, contrasts it with other activation methods such as high pH, metals, and hydrogen peroxide, and highlights the advantages of controlled sulfate radical formation at moderate subsurface temperatures. Field data from a large‑scale project demonstrate successful remediation of pentachlorophenol (PCP) in a petroleum hydrocarbon matrix, with contaminant concentrations reduced below clean‑up levels and sustained performance observed post‑treatment.

Applying CSIA to Improve ISCO Monitoring and Project Management
This White Paper explores the use of compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) as a powerful tool to evaluate and optimize in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) performance. It explains how CSIA distinguishes true contaminant destruction from non‑destructive processes such as dilution, displacement, or rebound, providing more definitive insights than concentration data alone. Field applications demonstrate how CSIA enhances performance monitoring, identifies delivery limitations, and supports better project management decisions, ultimately improving treatment efficiency and accelerating site closure.

Regulatory Considerations for Chemical Facility Security
This White Paper outlines the Department of Homeland Security’s Chemical Facility Anti‑terrorism Standards (CFATS) and their implications for environmental products. It explains the role of Appendix A, which lists chemicals of interest and screening threshold quantities (STQs), and describes the Top‑Screen process used to assess facility risk. The paper highlights which products, such as KLOZUR® SP, KLOZUR® CR or PERMEOX® Ultra are not currently subject to CFATS regulation, while noting that hydrogen peroxide at concentrations of 35% or greater is regulated due to its potential misuse.

Analytical Methods for Measuring Persulfate in Groundwater
This White Paper reviews techniques for quantifying persulfate concentrations following in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) applications. It explains the importance of accurate measurement for assessing oxidant radius of influence (ROI) and residence time, and compares laboratory and field methods including iron‑based titrations, iodometric reactions, and spectroscopic approaches. Practical considerations for field implementation, such as the use of KLOZUR® Persulfate Field Test Kits, are discussed alongside emerging analytical techniques, providing guidance for reliable monitoring of persulfate behavior in contaminated aquifers.

Understanding Natural Oxidant Interaction in Subsurface Remediation
This White Paper introduces the concept of Natural Oxidant Interaction (NOI) as a framework for evaluating oxidant behavior in subsurface environments. It explains how naturally occurring aquifer solids, including metals and natural organic matter (NOM), influence oxidant persistence and decomposition, and why NOI provides a more accurate description than traditional natural oxidant demand (NOD). Comparative studies of peroxide, permanganate, and persulfate highlight differences in reaction kinetics, stability, and interaction capacity, offering practical insights for designing effective and site‑specific in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) treatment systems.

Measuring ORP in Groundwater Remediation
This White Paper explains the principles and applications of oxidation‑reduction potential (ORP) measurement in subsurface environments. It outlines the definition of ORP, electrode systems, and the influence of pH and interferences on accurate readings. Practical guidance is provided on how ORP can be used to assess site conditions, track chemical and biological processes, and support bioremediation monitoring, while emphasizing the need to interpret ORP alongside other groundwater parameters for reliable conclusions.

Safe Handling Practices for Peroxygens in Remediation
This White Paper provides guidance on the safe use of peroxygens such as KLOZUR® activated persulfate, hydrogen peroxide, and PERMEOX® Ultra engineered calcium peroxide in soil and groundwater remediation. It outlines key safety principles—never contact, never contaminate, never confine, and always have water available—to minimize risks during storage, handling, and application. Practical recommendations include reviewing safety data sheets, using appropriate protective equipment, ensuring proper ventilation, and maintaining emergency preparedness. With adherence to these precautions, peroxygens can be applied effectively and safely in environmental remediation projects.

Remediation Strategies for Chlorinated Ethanes and 1,1,1‑TCA
This White Paper examines the environmental behavior and treatment challenges of chlorinated ethanes, with a focus on 1,1,1‑trichloroethane (TCA). It explains how single‑bonded carbon structures make ethanes less reactive than ethenes, complicating remediation efforts. Key properties such as solubility, density, partitioning, and biodegradation potential are reviewed, highlighting TCA’s persistence and its role as a DNAPL contaminant. Case studies demonstrate successful in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) using catalyzed hydrogen peroxide (CHP) and alkaline activated persulfate (AP), achieving reductions of up to 99.9% in groundwater and soil concentrations.

Preparation and Application of KLOZUR® SP Solutions for Effective ISCO Remediation
This White Paper provides practical guidance on the preparation, properties, and application of KLOZUR® SP persulfate solutions for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO). It reviews key physio‑chemical parameters—including concentration conversions, solubility, density, and viscosity—and explains their implications for safe batching and injection design. We highlight decomposition behavior in aqueous solutions, emphasizing factors such as concentration, temperature, pH, and activator presence that influence stability. Practical examples illustrate how solution formulation affects pore volume displacement and injection efficiency, offering strategies to tailor oxidant delivery to site‑specific needs. With its high solubility and flexible concentration range, KLOZUR® SP enables effective and controlled remediation when handled and applied according to best practices.

Assessing Oxidant Demand for Effective KLOZUR® Persulfate Remediation
This White Paper examines the concept of oxidant demand in the application of KLOZUR® activated persulfate for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO). It explains how contaminant demand, soil oxidant demand (SOD), and decomposition combine to form the total oxidant demand (TOD), which directly influences remediation success and project economics. We review contaminant oxidation pathways, the role of soil organics and reduced metals in SOD, and the impact of persulfate decomposition under varying site conditions. Practical guidance is provided on TOD measurement, treatability testing, and persulfate efficiency calculations, emphasizing the importance of laboratory studies to refine economic assessments and improve field outcomes. By integrating TOD evaluation with treatability studies, remediation professionals can design more effective and cost‑efficient remediation strategies using KLOZUR® persulfate.